Church History 2.33–3.9

At that time also they met at Constantinople and deposed Marcellus, bishop of Ancyra in Galatia, as an introducer of new doctrines, saying that the Son of God took his beginning from Mary and that his kingdom will have an end, and that he had composed a book on this; they expelled him from the church and entrusted the episcopate of the Galatian church to Basil, a powerful speaker esteemed for his learning. They wrote to the churches there to search out Marcellus's book and destroy it, and to bring over any whom they found holding the same views. Because of the length of the work, they said, they had not appended the whole book, but they inserted certain passages in their letter to prove that he held these views. Some said, however, that Marcellus had said these things as part of an inquiry, and that Eusebius's party had misrepresented them to the emperor himself as his confessed opinions; for they were exceedingly angry with him because he had not agreed with what they had defined at the synod in Phoenicia, nor at Jerusalem concerning Arius, nor taken part in the dedication of the great Martyrium, to avoid communion with them. Indeed, writing about him to the emperor, they brought this forward too as a slander, as though the emperor himself had been insulted by him, since he had not seen fit to honour the dedication of the church built in Jerusalem. The occasion of this book of Marcellus was Asterius, a sophist from Cappadocia, who, writing treatises about the doctrine that agreed with the opinion of Arius, went round the cities giving readings of them, and was generally present among the bishops and at the synods that were held. For in contradicting him, Marcellus, either willingly or not understanding it so, rolled into the opinion of Paul of Samosata. But at the synod of Sardica he later recovered his see, having shown that he did not hold these views.

The emperor had already divided the empire among his sons, who were Caesars, assigning the West to Constantine and Constans and the East to Constantius. Falling ill in body, he went to Helenopolis in Bithynia to use the natural hot baths. Becoming worse, he was carried to Nicomedia. While staying there in a suburb, he was initiated into holy baptism; he rejoiced greatly at this and gave thanks to God. Making a will, he divided the empire among his sons as before. Leaving privileges to the elder Rome and to his namesake city, he gave the will to the presbyter whom his sister Constantia, when dying, had commended to him, an admirer of Arius but good in his life; and adding an oath, he charged him to give it to Constantius when he arrived. For neither he nor any other of the Caesars was with their father when he died. Having given this charge, he lived a few days more and died, about sixty-five years old, having reigned thirty-one of them. He was above all a supporter of the Christian religion, so that he was the first emperor to begin to show zeal for the church and to bring it to the height of its growth. He was successful, as I do not know whether anyone else has been, in what he undertook; for without God, it seems to me, he undertook nothing. He prevailed in the wars that befell him against the Goths and Sarmatians; he reshaped the state as he wished so easily as to establish another senate and an imperial city named after himself; and as soon as he undertook it he overthrew in a short time the pagan religion, which had been cherished by rulers and subjects for so long. When he died, his body was carried to Constantinople in a golden coffin and laid on a platform in the palace. The same honour and ceremony were paid to him by those in the palace as when he was alive. When Constantius learned of his father's death, which was soon reported to him while he was staying in the East, he hastened to Constantinople, and, after a royal funeral, buried him in the church named after the apostles, where Constantine himself had prepared his tomb while he lived. From that time, as if a custom had begun, the Christian emperors who have died since in Constantinople are laid there; and not only they but bishops too, since the priesthood is of equal honour with the kingship, or rather, in holy places, even holds the first place.

Such were the events that befell the churches in the reign of Constantine. After his death the doctrine of those who had met at Nicaea was again brought into question. For though not all accepted it, while Constantine was still alive no one dared openly to reject it. But when he died, many departed from this opinion; these were those who had earlier been suspected of betraying it. Of all, Eusebius and Theognis of Bithynia made the greatest efforts to make the opinion of Arius prevail. They thought they could easily achieve this if they prevented Athanasius's return from exile and handed over the churches of Egypt to one of their own opinion. They planned these things with the help of the presbyter who had been responsible under Constantine for the recall of Arius. For he was also in favour with the emperor Constantius, since he had preserved his father's will for him. Being trusted, he gained freedom of speech and became familiar even with the emperor's wife and with the powerful eunuchs of the bedchamber. Eusebius was then head of the imperial household; having become a supporter of Arius's opinion, he brought the empress and many of those about the palace to share his views. From then on there were frequent debates about the doctrine again, in private and in public, and with them insults and hatreds; and things went as Theognis's party wished.

Meanwhile Athanasius too returned from western Gaul to Alexandria. Constantine, while alive, had intended to recall him, and is said to have wished this in his will as well. Since he died before doing so, his namesake son, who ruled the western Gauls, allowed him to return, giving him a letter to the people of Alexandria. Having found it translated from the Latin, I have set it down as I found it. It reads as follows: “Constantine Caesar to the people of the catholic church of the city of Alexandria. I think it has not escaped the knowledge of your holy mind that Athanasius, the interpreter of the venerable law, was sent for a time to the Gauls so that, since the savagery of his bloodthirsty and hostile enemies persisted to the danger of his sacred head, he might not suffer irreparable harm through the perversity of wicked men. To frustrate this, he was snatched from the jaws of the men who were pressing upon him, and was ordered to live under my care in such a way that in this city where he was staying he had all necessities in abundance; though indeed his celebrated virtue, trusting in divine help, makes light even of the burdens of harsher fortune. Our lord, of blessed memory, Constantine Augustus, my father, had intended to restore this same bishop to his own place, to your most beloved Godliness; but since he was overtaken by the human lot and went to rest before fulfilling his wish, I thought it fitting, as his successor, to fulfil the purpose of the emperor of divine memory. When he comes into your presence, you will learn how much respect he has received from me. Nor is it surprising if I have done anything for him; for both the image of your longing and the bearing of so great a man moved and urged my soul to this. May divine providence preserve you, beloved brothers.” Having obtained his return by this letter of the emperor, Athanasius governed the churches of Egypt. But those who held the views of Arius took this hard and would not keep quiet. From then on frequent disturbances were stirred up, which again gave a pretext for other plots against Athanasius. For Eusebius's party eagerly slandered him to the emperor as seditious, and as having allowed himself to return against the laws of the church, without a judgment of bishops. How through their plotting he was driven again from Alexandria, I shall tell shortly in its proper order. About this time Eusebius son of Pamphilus died, and Acacius succeeded to the episcopate of Caesarea in Palestine. Having the same zeal as Eusebius himself, and having been taught the sacred writings under him, he was able in thought and elegant in expression, so that he left many writings worth mentioning. Not long afterward the emperor Constantine, making war on his own brother Constans near Aquileia, was killed by Constans's generals. The Roman empire fell, in the West, to Constans, and in the East, to Constantius.

Meanwhile, Alexander having died, Paul succeeded to the high priesthood of Constantinople: as those who hold the views of Arius and Macedonius say, having obtained it for himself against the wishes of Eusebius, bishop of Nicomedia, and Theodore of Heraclea in Thrace, to whom, as neighbours, the ordination belonged; but as the common account has it, he was ordained by the bishops staying in the city on the testimony of Alexander, whom he succeeded. For Alexander, who was already ninety-eight years old, twenty-three of which he had spent bravely in the episcopate, when he was about to die and the clergy asked him to whom they should entrust the church after him, said: “If you seek a man good in divine things and able to teach as well, you have Paul; but if one for outward affairs and dealings with magistrates, Macedonius is better.” Even the admirers of Macedonius agree that both were so testified to by Alexander. They say that Paul was skilled in business and in speaking, but they attribute the testimony about character to Macedonius; and they accuse Paul of having given himself to luxury and an indifferent way of life. From their own admission, then, it appears that Paul was an eloquent man and a brilliant teacher in the church; but as to the reverses of life and dealings with the powerful, events bear witness that he handled them badly. For he broke up none of the plots of those who rose against him, as those skilled in such matters naturally do. Although he was exceedingly loved by the people, he suffered ill through the scheming of those who then rejected the doctrine that had prevailed at Nicaea. First he was accused of not having lived well and was expelled from the church of Constantinople; in the end he was condemned to live in exile, and is said to have died pitiably by strangling, his enemies having contrived his murder. But this happened later.

At this time very great turmoil seized the church of Constantinople because of this ordination. While Alexander was alive, those who held the views of Arius had little freedom of speech; the people looked to him and were guided by him, and held right belief about the Divine, especially after the unexpected disaster of Arius, whose death in the manner described they believed to have come by divine wrath through the virtues of Alexander. But when he died, the people were divided in two and came to open battle in strife over doctrines. Those who followed the views of Arius were eager that Macedonius should be ordained, and those who held the Son to be of the same essence as the Father, that Paul should be bishop; and this prevailed. After Paul's ordination the emperor arrived, for he happened to be away at the time, and was angry that the episcopate had been entrusted to an unworthy man. At the instigation of those hostile to Paul he convened a synod, drove him from the church, and handed over the see of Constantinople to Eusebius, bishop of Nicomedia.

Having done this, he came to Antioch in Syria. The church there, of extraordinary size and beauty, which Constantine had begun to build while still alive, using his son Constantius as his helper, had now been completed; and it seemed to Eusebius's party, who had long been eager for this, the right moment to hold a synod. They, and others of the same views, ninety-seven bishops in all, gathered at Antioch from many places, ostensibly for the dedication of the new church, but, as the outcome showed, to alter what had been decided at Nicaea. Placetus was then leading the church of Antioch after Euphronius. It was the fifth year since the death of Constantine the Great. When all the bishops had gathered, and the emperor Constantius was also present, most of them were indignant and fiercely accused Athanasius of having disregarded a priestly ordinance which they themselves had made, and of having taken back the church of Alexandria before being permitted by a synod. On this ground they also said he was the cause of the death of citizens, since when he entered the city a disturbance had arisen, and many had been killed and others handed over to the courts. When the greatest slander had been woven against Athanasius by such arguments, they voted that Gregory should head the church of Alexandria. Then, passing to the inquiry about the doctrine, they found no fault with what had been decided at Nicaea; but they sent letters to the bishops in the cities declaring that, being bishops, they had not followed Arius, for how could they follow one who was a presbyter? but that, having become examiners of his faith, they had rather received him; and that they believed according to the faith handed down from the beginning. This, they said, was the one they appended to their letter, which made no mention at all of the essence of the Father or of the Son, or of the term “of the same essence,” but equivocated in its meaning, so that neither those who held the views of Arius nor those who followed the synod of Nicaea could attack the composition of its words as unknown to the sacred Scriptures. For leaving out what each side did not accept, they put into this document the terms acknowledged by both. They agreed that the Son is with the Father, is only-begotten and God, exists before all things, took flesh and fulfilled the Father's will, and other things likewise; but whether he is co-eternal or of the same essence with the Father, or the contrary, they did not write. Having changed their minds, it seems, about this document, they set out another besides it, in other respects, as I think, agreeing with the doctrine of those who met at Nicaea, unless some meaning unknown to me lies hidden in the words. I do not know why, having refused to call the Son of the same essence, they declared him unchangeable and unalterable in his divinity, the exact image of the essence, will, power and glory, and the firstborn of all creation. They said they had found this creed written in the hand of Lucian, who was martyred at Nicomedia, a man most highly esteemed in other respects and who had studied the sacred Scriptures with the greatest exactness; but whether they said this truly, or were dignifying their own document by the martyr's reputation, I cannot say. Taking part in this synod were not only Eusebius, who, after Paul had been expelled, had moved from Nicomedia and held the see of Constantinople, but also Acacius, Eusebius son of Pamphilus's successor, Patrophilus of Scythopolis, Theodore of Heraclea, formerly called Perinthus, Eudoxius of Germanicia, who later, after Macedonius, was entrusted with the church of Constantinople, and Gregory, who had been chosen to head the church of Alexandria. These were then acknowledged to hold the same views as one another. There were also Dianius, bishop of Caesarea in Cappadocia, George of Laodicea in Syria, and many others who were bishops of metropolitan or otherwise notable churches.

With them was also Eusebius, surnamed of Emesa. By birth he was of a noble family of Edessa in Osrhoene. From youth he learned the sacred writings according to the custom of his country, and afterward he was taught the learning of the Greeks too, attending the teachers who were there at that time. Later he studied the divine books thoroughly under the interpreters Eusebius son of Pamphilus and Patrophilus, who presided over Scythopolis. Coming to Antioch, when Eustathius happened to be deposed on the accusation of Cyrus, he was in the company of Euphronius, his successor. Fleeing from the priesthood, he went to Alexandria and attended the philosophers there; and having been trained in their learning, he returned to Antioch and again spent his time with Placetus, the successor of Euphronius. When this synod was being held there, he was proposed for the see of Alexandria by Eusebius, bishop of Constantinople. For Eusebius thought that, being very good at public affairs and a most powerful speaker, he would easily turn the Egyptians from their goodwill toward Athanasius. But when he declined this ordination, reckoning that he would find ready hatred among the Alexandrians, who would not bear to see another in place of Athanasius, Gregory was entrusted with the church of Alexandria and he himself with that of Emesa. There he suffered a riot, for he was accused of practising the part of astronomy they call judicial; he fled to Laodicea, to George, the bishop there, who was his friend. George went with him to Antioch and arranged, through the bishops Placetus and Narcissus, for him to return to Emesa. He was in favour with the emperor Constantius; for instance, when the emperor was about to march against the Persians, he took him with him. For it is said that the Divine worked many wonders through him, as George of Laodicea bears witness, who relates these and other things about him. But though he was such a man, he did not escape the envy of those whose nature is to be pained at the virtues of others; he too incurred the charge of holding the views of Sabellius. At this time he voted with those who met at Antioch. Maximus, bishop of Jerusalem, is said to have deliberately avoided this synod, because he repented that, having been deceived, he had voted with those who deposed Athanasius. Nor did he who governed the see of Rome, nor any of the other Italians or of those beyond the Romans, come there. Meanwhile, when the Franks were ravaging the western Gauls, and the East was being shaken by very great earthquakes, especially the city of Antioch, after the synod there, Gregory came to Alexandria with a multitude of soldiers, who had been ordered to see that his entry should be without disturbance and safe. Those who held the views of Arius helped them in this and in driving out Athanasius. Athanasius feared that the people might suffer something on his account. When night came on he was holding an assembly; and when the soldiers had already occupied the church, he finished the prayer and first ordered a psalm to be sung. While the psalm was being sung in unison, the soldiers kept quiet for a time, since it was not a fitting moment to attack. Meanwhile, slipping out among those singing, he went out unnoticed and sailed up to Rome. Gregory took possession of the see of Alexandria; and the people, enraged, set fire to the church named after Dionysius, who had been bishop there.

In this way the plans of those of the opposing sect succeeded: those who zealously championed in the East the doctrine confirmed at Nicaea had been deposed, and since they had already seized the most illustrious sees, of Alexandria in Egypt, of Antioch in Syria, and of the imperial city by the Hellespont, they had the bishops throughout these regions obedient to them. But the bishop of the church of Rome and the priests of the West regarded these things as an insult to themselves. For they had approved from the beginning the vote of those who met at Nicaea in everything, and had not ceased to hold this view even now; and when Athanasius came to them, they received him kindly and drew his case to themselves. Eusebius, vexed at this, wrote to Julius that he should be judge of what had been decided about Athanasius at Tyre. But before learning Julius's decision, he died, not long after the synod held at Antioch. Those at Constantinople who were zealous for the doctrine set out at Nicaea brought Paul into the church. At the same time, as those of the opposite party joined together, the party of Theognis, bishop of Nicaea, and Theodore of Heraclea, and others of their views who happened to be in the city, met in another church and ordained Macedonius bishop of Constantinople. From then on frequent disturbances like wars arose in the city; for the people clashed with each other on both sides, very many were killed, and the city was full of turmoil, so that the emperor, then at Antioch, learning of this and being moved to anger, ordered Paul to be driven out again. The emperor's orders were carried out by Hermogenes, the general in command of the cavalry. Being sent at that time to Thrace and passing through Constantinople, he tried to drive Paul from the church by means of soldiers. When the people would not allow it, and in some measure defended him, and the soldiers tried to carry out the order more violently, the people seized Hermogenes's house, set it on fire, killed him, tied a rope to him and dragged him through the city. When the emperor heard of it, he rode on horseback to Constantinople to punish the people. But he spared them when he saw them meeting him in tears and entreating him; he deprived the city of about half the grain which his father Constantine had given each year from the public stores to the citizens out of the taxes of Egypt, supposing perhaps that the many, idle from luxury and ease, were ready for riots. He turned his anger on Paul and ordered him to be driven from the city. He was also angry with Macedonius, as the cause of the death of the general and of many others, and because he had been ordained before he gave permission; and neither confirming his ordination nor annulling it, he left matters so and returned to Antioch. Meanwhile the zealots for the opinion of Arius removed Gregory, as negligent in establishing their doctrine and disliked by the Alexandrians because of the hardships that befell the city at his entry and the burning of the church. In his place George was sent, a Cappadocian by race, who was admired as a man of action and was zealous for this doctrine.

Athanasius, fleeing from Alexandria, came to Rome. At the same time Paul, bishop of Constantinople, happened to arrive there too, and Marcellus of Ancyra, and Asclepas of Gaza, who, being opposed to the Arians, had been accused by some of a different opinion of having overturned an altar and had been deposed; in his place Quintianus was entrusted with the church of Gaza. Lucius too, bishop of Adrianople, accused on another charge and deprived of his church, was living in Rome. The bishop of the Romans, having learned the charges against each, and finding them all in agreement with the doctrine of the synod of Nicaea, admitted them into communion as of the same faith. And since the care of all belonged to him because of the dignity of his see, he restored to each his own church. He wrote to the bishops in the East, blaming them for not having judged rightly about these men and for troubling the churches by not abiding by what had been decided at Nicaea. He ordered a few of them all to be present on a set day to prove that they had passed a just sentence on them; otherwise he threatened that he would not tolerate them in future if they did not stop innovating. So he wrote. Athanasius and Paul each recovered his see, and sent Julius's letters to the bishops in the East. These took them hard; and gathering at Antioch, they wrote back to Julius a letter elegantly phrased and composed in a lawyer's manner, full of much irony and not without the most terrible threats. In the letter they acknowledged that the church of the Romans was held in honour by all, as having been from the beginning the school of the apostles and the metropolis of piety, even though the introducers of the doctrine had settled there from the East. But they did not think that on this account they should take second place, since, if they did not surpass it in the size or numbers of their church, they excelled it in virtue and purpose. Bringing as a charge against Julius his communion with Athanasius's party, they were indignant that their synod had been insulted and its sentence annulled, and they denounced what had been done as unjust and contrary to church law. After complaining in this way and protesting that they had suffered wrong, they promised peace and communion to Julius if he accepted the deposition of those they had driven out and the appointment of those ordained in their place; but if he opposed what had been decided, they announced the contrary. For they insisted that the priests in the East before them had made no objection when Novatian was driven from the church of the Romans. About what had been done concerning the decisions of those who met at Nicaea they wrote him nothing in reply, declaring that they had many reasons for a necessary defence of what had happened, but saying that it was superfluous to defend themselves on these matters now, since they had been suspected of doing wrong in everything at once.

Such was what they wrote to Julius. To the emperor Constantius they again denounced those they had deposed. He, then staying at Antioch, wrote to Philip, the prefect at Constantinople, to give the church back to Macedonius and to drive Paul from the city. The prefect, fearing a movement of the people, before the emperor's order became known, went to a public bath called Zeuxippus, a famous and very large one, and sent for Paul as if to consult him on public business. When he came, he at once showed him the emperor's letter; and ordering him to be led secretly through the palace next to the bath to the sea, he put him on a ship and sent him to Thessalonica, from where his ancestors were said to have come, and sentenced him to keep entirely out of the eastern part of the empire, though he did not forbid him to set foot in Illyricum and the lands beyond. Leaving the court, with Macedonius riding with him in his carriage, the prefect went to the church. The people (for, these things having already happened, countless numbers had gathered) at once filled the church; for both those of the Arian heresy and those who favoured Paul were eager to occupy it first. When the prefect, and Macedonius with him, came to the doors of the church, the crowd, pushed by the soldiers to make way for them, could not give way, since those in front were packed tight; and the soldiers, supposing that the mob would not yield willingly, killed many with their swords. Many too were trampled to death by one another. So what the emperor had decided was done, and Macedonius took over the churches. In this way Paul was unexpectedly deprived of the church of Constantinople. Athanasius, in flight, remained hidden, fearing the threat of the emperor Constantius. For he had threatened to punish him with death, since those of another opinion accused him of causing riots and said that many had died when he entered the city. What most moved the emperor to anger was that they said he was making a profit by selling the grain allowance which the emperor Constantine had given to the poor of Alexandria.